Rainfall rising in over half of India’s sub-districts, says four-decade study (GS Paper 1, Geography)
Why in news?
- Rainfall is increasing in more than half of India’s 4,400-odd tehsils or sub-districts, says a granular analysis of changes in the Indian monsoon, conducted for the first time at the tehsil level. While 55% of tehsils have seen a rise in rainfall, about 11% have experienced a fall.
- The study authored by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), analyses high-resolution meteorological data spanning four decades, from 1982 to 2022, which has been recorded by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
Concerns:
- The decrease occurred largely during the critical southwest monsoon. In fact, of the tehsils experiencing lower rainfall, about 68% saw reduced rainfall in all the monsoon months from June to September, while 87% showed a decline during the initial monsoon months of June and July, which are crucial for the sowing of kharif crops.
- Most of these tehsils are in the Indo-Gangetic plains, which contribute to more than half of India’s agricultural production as well as in northeastern India and the Indian Himalayan region.
Key Highlights:
- India collectively experienced 29 “normal”, eight “above-normal”, and three “below-normal” monsoon years during that period. But an analysis at the district level reveals that 30% of India’s districts witnessed several more years of deficient rainfall and 38% saw many years of excessive rainfall.
- In fact, 23 districts including New Delhi, Bengaluru, Nilgiris, Jaipur, Kutch, and Indore experienced both extremes, with a higher number of deficient and excessive rainfall years.
- Several tehsils in Rajasthan, Gujarat, central Maharashtra and parts of Tamil Nadu, which have historically been dry regions, have also been getting wetter, tying in with the finding that a majority of tehsils have been reporting increasing rainfall.
Erratic rain patterns:
- Rainfall from the northeast monsoon, which sets in during October, November and December, primarily in peninsular India, has increased by more than 10% over the past decade (2012-2022) in approximately 80% of tehsils in Tamil Nadu, 44% in Telangana, and 39% in Andhra Pradesh, respectively.
- The southwest monsoon accounts for nearly 76% of India’s annual rainfall, with about 11% coming from the northeast monsoon.
- While the remaining Indian States are usually dry during this period, several tehsils of Maharashtra and Goa on the west and Odisha and West Bengal on the east coast have been reporting increasing rainfall during winter. This increase could partly be attributed to cyclonic activity in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Way Forward:
- As India readies for the Union Budget, it will be crucial to focus on future-proofing the economy against increasingly erratic rainfall patterns. The monsoons impact the food we eat, the water we drink and also our energy transition.
On delisting some Kuki-Zomi tribes
(GS Paper 2, Social Justice)
Why in news?
- The Manipur Government has been asked by the Centre to examine a representation seeking the delisting of certain Kuki and Zomi tribes from the Scheduled Tribes (ST) list of Manipur.
- Following this, Chief Minister announced that a special committee might be formed to look into it.
- The representation was sent by Maheshwar Thounaojam, National Secretary of the Republican Party of India (Athawale) in Manipur, who argued for the inclusion of Meiteis in the ST list by seeking the exclusion of certain Kuki and Zomi tribes.
What led to the representation?
- This attempt to initiate a process for the possible de-scheduling of certain Kuki and Zomi tribes comes as the State runs into the eighth month of the ethnic conflict between the valley-based Meitei people and the hills-based Kuki-Zo (ST) people.
- The conflict, that began on May 3, 2023, is said to have been triggered by an order of the Manipur High Court, which directed the State government to send a recommendation on the Meiteis’ inclusion in the ST list to the Centre.
- Now that a similar request has been forwarded by the Centre to the State government, this time over a representation to delist Kuki and Zomi tribes, there is potential for the widening of existing divides among the communities in the State.
- Among the key reasons for which Meiteis have argued for ST status has been their inability to own land in the forested hill districts, where only STs can own land. This is the first time members of the Meitei community have tried to argue for their inclusion on the ST list by arguing that certain Kuki and Zomi tribes did not deserve to be on it.
- This move could also have implications on the criteria used to define groups as STs; unchanged since the Lokur Commission introduced them in 1965.
What does the representation say?
- The objections have been raised against the inclusion of three specific entries in the ST list of Manipur; “Any Mizo(Lushai) Tribes”, “Zou”, and “Any Kuki Tribes” over time. The principal argument being made for the exclusion of these three entries has been that they are not “indigenous” to the land of Manipur.
- The representation claimed that there had been no mention of these particular tribes residing in the land of Manipur in pre-Independence Censuses.
- It also said that the ambiguity of “Any Mizo (Lushai) Tribes” and “Any Kuki Tribes” in the ST list has allegedly aided illegal immigrants from Myanmar and Bangladesh in obtaining benefits meant for STs in India.
Historical aspect:
- The argument that these communities were not residing in the land of Manipur at the time the first Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) list was published in 1950 does not hold ground.
- To begin with, this order had listed three tribes for Manipur — “Any Kuki Tribe”, “Any Lushai Tribe” and “Any Naga Tribe”, under which respective sub-tribes were to be subsumed.
- Secondly, there is no empirical evidence, as of yet, to show that these tribes names’ presence in the ST list has aided any form of organised illegal immigration into Manipur, beyond individual instances and the rhetoric presented by the Meitei community.
First Backward Classes Commission:
- However, the First Backward Classes Commission had noted in its 1955 report that these three broad tribe classifications originated under the British administration, adding that several communities such as Paite and Hmars refused to be identified under the umbrella of Kukis.
- Accordingly, the Commission had recommended that for tribes of Assam and the hills of Manipur, individual tribe names be added to the ST list instead of umbrella tribes, for which these lists must be redrawn entirely given the dated nature of the information.
- Subsequently, when the ST list for Manipur was revised in 1956, it included 29 entries with individual tribe names, save for one —“Any Mizo (Lushai) Tribe” — which was retained. This list also included the tribe “Zou”. But Mr. Thounaojam’s representation has claimed that neither of these entries were specifically recommended by the First Backward Classes Commission.
Lokur Commission:
- Again in 1965, when the Lokur Commission prepared its report, it had also noted that there has been a “splintering tendency” among Kuki tribes. “Sub-groups and even clans wish to establish themselves as distinct entities in the political and social structure,” the Commission had said of the Kuki tribes.
- This “splintering tendency” among the Kuki tribes grew over the years, according to representatives of Kuki-Zo communities in Manipur, which eventually led several communities to adopt their unique community’s identity.
- By the end of the century, most people who would be considered under the umbrella of Kukis had already established their independent tribe names that had been added to the ST list over the years.
- Yet, there remained a need to address the need of a minority number of people who wanted to identify as Kukis, a Zomi representative explained. As a result, in 2002-2003, the entry “Any Kuki Tribes” was added to the ST list of Manipur.
Bhuria Commission Report:
- But the Bhuria Commission Report of 2002-2004 on Scheduled Tribes had observed that this particular addition had led to confusion about who would be classified under this entry.
- It had thus recommended mentioning tribe names in the ST list in order to nip “inter-tribe differences” in the bud.
Surface irrigation may encourage monocropping, Evidence from Telangana holds lessons for India
(GS Paper 3, Environment)
Why in news?
- Farmers are more likely to move towards monocropping if farms receive a higher level of surface irrigation, as opposed to irrigation facilities achieved through projects that increase the groundwater table, a recent study on cropping patterns and trends in Telangana showed.
Surface irrigation:
- Surface irrigation is a traditional method in which water moves over the land, depending on the gravitational gradient.
- When water is applied to the field, it advances across the surface until the water extends over the entire area. The drawback of this irrigation method is inefficient usage and wastage of water.
- Results from the research indicate that the presence of new irrigation facilities, achieved through projects that increase the groundwater table, increases the likelihood of farm households adopting crop diversification compared to those with existing irrigation facilities.
- This suggests that surface irrigation tends to encourage the adoption of monocrops, especially paddy.
Improved irrigation facilities vs surface irrigation:
- Insights from focus group discussions revealed that small farmers cultivate a higher variety of crops when provided with access to irrigation through groundwater.
- Meanwhile, it was also found that providing farm households with new irrigation facilities aimed at improving the groundwater table significantly enhances farm profits, compared to those in regions relying on surface irrigation.
- In newly irrigated regions, the introduction of improved irrigation facilities has resulted in a 21 per cent increase in farm incomes compared to those in regions utilising surface irrigation.
- Although surface irrigation may initially seem like a more lucrative option for achieving higher returns, it carries potential environmental challenges, including soil fertility loss due to waterlogging and salinity. In addition, continuous access to irrigation may contribute to the development of monoculture.
Why it matters?
- The findings hold significance for breaking the monocropping pattern followed by many farmers across India to enhance productivity.
- Monocropping has led to nutrient soil deficiency and a decrease in resource-use efficiency. In states like Punjab, Haryana and Telangana, the monocropping of paddy has led to several problems, including an alarming decline in groundwater.
- In October 2023, a report from United Nations University-Institute for Environment and Human Security, warned that India was close to reaching its groundwater depletion tipping point. More research has indicated that the rate of depletion of groundwater in India during 2041-2080 will be thrice the current rate with global warming.
Case of Telangana:
- Telangana, where the study was conducted, is one of the largest producers of paddy in the country. The observations of cropping patterns and trends in the state indicated a decline in diversified cropping systems over the years, attributable to different factors such as improved access to irrigation facilities and market policies favouring the cultivation of cereals. The state-level crop diversification index has been consistently low, standing at 0.27 over decades.
- Farmers tend to move towards conventional and monocropping practices over the years across the state, except in some patches of rain-fed regions, the findings showed.
- The proportion of cultivation of major cereals, commercial crops, fruits and vegetables significantly increased from 1966 to 2017, while that of pulses, oilseeds and millets significantly decreased during the same period.
Characteristics affecting crop choices:
- Farmers make decisions regarding the cultivation of a specific crop based on the expected benefits derived from its cultivation and the constraints faced by their households (adopters).
- Additionally, the decision to cultivate a single crop (monocrop) or a set of crops (crop diversification) was based on the anticipation that the expected benefits from a specific crop surpass that of another set of crops or its associated benefits.
- These discussions highlighted that the minimum support price also plays a pivotal role in choosing a crop. Other characteristics which affect crop choices were agricultural implements and market access variables such as road connectivity and distance to the nearest city.
